Journal of Korean Art & Archaeology 2007, Vol.1 pp.46-61
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I INTRODUCTION
The Baekje Kingdom (18 B.C.~660) and Japan were closely related in ancient times. Historical records as well as stone and metal artifacts show that many Koreans from Baekje introduced advanced culture and technology to Japan. In truth, the influence of Baekje can be found not only in Buddhist art but also in other aspects of material culture in Japan now. In addition, archaeological research on the corridor-style stone chamber tomb and roof tiles has been seeking for evidence of the influence of Baekje culture on Japan. However, the relative scarcity of artifacts from Baekje compared to those from the Silla or Gaya kingdom has been a major hindrance to the study and the authentication of the vestiges of Baekje in Japan. Fortunately, increased excavation of Baekje Kingdom sites has led to discoveries of new, important artifacts that have helped archaeologists better understand how Baekje influenced Japan. Special exhibitions like this one that present the cultural brilliance of Baekje will serve as good opportunities for Japanese researchers to realize the cultural importance of Baekje in Japan and to reexamine the relationship between the two ancient countries. This paper is based on these recent findings and archaeological achievements and will discuss a few issues in tracing Baekje’s influence on Japan from an archaeological viewpoint.
II BAEKJE AND JAPAN BEFORE THE 4TH CENTURY
Historical records suggest that the official diplomatic relationship between Baekje of Korea and the Yamato Kingdom of Japan was established during the reign of King Geunchogo (346-375) of Baekje. During this period, Baekje was a rapidly rising power. Given that Baekje and Goguryeo were rivals, it was diplomatically advantageous for Baekje to establish a friendly relationship with the Yamato Kingdom of Japan. To the Japanese, building a relationship with Baekje was also important as it allowed the importation of various resources including iron and a variety of advanced technologies.
This does not mean that there was no interaction before the 4th century between the Baekje region and the islands of Japan. The recent recovery of artifacts especially of earthenware proved so. From Tonokubi stone coffin no. 3 in Nagasaki Prefecture on Tsushima Island, pieces of earthenware with a straight mouth and two ears were found. (Plate 1-1) (Oda et al, 1974). Discovered together with Yayoi earthenware, archaeologists dated these to between the latter half of the first century and the first half of the second century (Oda, 1978). Meanwhile, earthenware vessels with their shoulders decorated with serrate patterns were discovered at SD159 during the 17th excavation of Hakata historic site in Fukuoka Prefecture (Plate 1-3) (Fukuoka Municipal Educational Commission, 1985). Previously, most examples of this type of earthenware with ears and serrate patterns were those found in the 3rd and 4th century jar-coffin in Jeolla-do Province. However, the same type of earthenware has recently been discovered at the historic sites of Oseok-ri, Seocheon (Plate 1-2) (Yi Nam-seok 1996) and the Bungang/Jeoseok-ri tumulus, indicating that such earthenware was also used in the west coast of Chungcheongnam-do Province (Yi Nam-seok 1997). Another noticeable discovery was made from a shell mound in Daognae shell mound, Busan. It contained the earthenware jar with a straight mouth, saw-toothed patterns around the shoulder, and a raised band around the neck (Bokcheon Museum, Busan 1997). This type of straight mouth jar was presumably produced in Baekje at around the same time as the jars with two ears were (Plate 1-5). Albeit limited, the aforementioned material proofs are enough to imagine the connecting route that connects from the southwest of the Korean Peninsula to the south coast and then continues to the northern Kyushu of Japan via the Tsushima Islands. They are indicative of some interaction between Baekje and Kyushu of Japan.
As for the region further east of the northern Kyushu, the kiln sites from the 4th century discovered at Deai site in Hyogo Prefecture are noteworthy (Kameda 1989). The kiln site was two meters in length and one and a half meters in width and was built on a slope of 10 degrees. Only the floor remains today but the kiln characteristically has a partition between the combustion chamber built vertically underground and a kiln chamber. This type of kiln was once discovered at the sites of Samnyong-ri and Sansu-ri kilns in Jincheon, Chungcheongbuk-do Province. More studies on theses sites should be done to evaluate the relationship between the kilns, but it is conceivable that the Baekje region could have been the home of those who made the Deai kiln.
Other telltale artifacts about the relationship between Baekje and Japan include a horse-shaped bronze belt hook presumably excavated from Sakakiyama mounded tomb in Okayama Prefecture (Wada 1919). Because the circumstances surrounding the discovery of this belt hook are dubious and the other artifacts excavated together in the ancient tombs date back to the 5th century, the authenticity of this hook could not be verified (Azuma 1992). If genuine, it should be studied in relation to the numerous other horse-shaped belt hooks that have been excavated from the Cheongdang-dong site in Cheonan.
As pointed out earlier, relatively few archaeological materials are available, but there is enough to show that Baekje culture in the 3rd and 4th centuries was introduced to the northern Kyushu and Kinki area via the route from the south coast of the Korean Peninsula. Furthermore, newer discoveries that could shed light on the relationship between Baekje and Japan before the 4th century are expected as excavation of the 3rd and 4th century historic sites of the Baekje Kingdom has been increasing.
III BAEKJE AND JAPAN IN THE 5TH AND 6TH CENTURIES
During the 5th and 6th centuries, new techniques in various fields such as iron and metalwork production, pottery, and civil engineering were introduced from the Korean Peninsula to Japan, causing great socio-cultural change in Japanese society. The change in Japan wrought by the introduction of Korean culture was comparable in magnitude to that experienced by Japan during the Meiji Restoration in the 19th century when Japan embraced western civilization. Koreans who came to Japan with new techniques and civilization were the driving force behind this change. Historical records indicate that there were various groups of people who came to Japan from Baekje including a new group of technicians and academics. From an archaeological perspective, the influence of Baekje culture on Japan is apparent during this period. This paper will discuss these influences with special focus on a number of issues.
01 SUEKI POTTERY AND BAEKJE EARTHENWARE
Except for the earlier mentioned case of the Deai kiln, Japanese began to produce pottery using kilns long after Koreans used tunnel-type wood-firing kilns for their earthenware or stoneware. It was not until the 5th century when many people from Korea crossed to Japan that sueki earthenware began to be produced in Japan. It was confirmed that the first sueki pottery was produced at the kilns scattered in such regions as Fukuoka, Kagawa, and Okayama but the major producers were the kilns of Suemura site in Osaka Prefecture. Many kilns and pottery excavated in the course of land development projects revealed that Sumemura kilns site was the center of sueki pottery production in the 5th and 6th century Japan.
The most daunting task in the study of sueki pottery was to find the oldest sueki pottery and its origin. In this regard, very important discoveries were made at the Obadera kiln site. Two kiln operations (No. TG231 and TG232) were found along with a settlement for potters who are believed to have produced sueki earthenware (Osaka Educational Commission et al. 1995). The pottery found includes a pedestaled dish, jar stand, and jars that are similar to earthenware discovered in areas on the south coast of the Korean Peninsula including Busan, Gimhae, Masan, and Haman. Meanwhile, there are some examples of pedestaled dish that were made using the production method of hajiki earthenware (traditional Japanese ware). It seems that the production of pottery started as Korean potters from the south coast of Gyeongsangnam-do Province made the kilns in Obadera and began to teach the Japanese potters who made hajiki wares.
Interestingly, however, the dish with fitted cover (Plate 2-1) and hasue, sue ware wine server (Plate 2-2)—the two most typical forms of sueki ware—have hardly been discovered at the Obadera kiln site in Japan or in Gyeongsangnam-do Province in Korea but from the sites of the Baekje Kingdom, especially in Jeollanam-do. Also, rice-bale shaped bottles of the early sueki period were discovered only in Jeollanam-do Province as was the case of Mansu-ri Tomb no. 1 in Yeongam. These new styles of sueki were produced at kiln no. TK73 or TK216, which was established later than the kilns at Obadera. These facts suggest that Baekje potters joined in the production of sueki pottery a little later than the potters from the south coast of Gyeongsangnam-do Province.
From a Japanese viewpoint, what part of Baekje these potters came from is meaningful. It is a difficult question but not without a clue: it could be solved if we closely study how the exterior bottom of the dish with fitted cover was made. After examining in detail the pots produced in Baekje, I found that various methods had been used to shape the bottom of the dish with fitted cover: cutting on the wheel; cutting while holding with hands; and wiping after cutting. It is not yet clear whether those various methods were regional or specific to any time. However, because most sueki ware dishes with fitted cover in Japan were shaped by cutting on the wheel, the region where the method was the most commonly used will be likely the starting point of Baekje potters in Japan.
02 IMMIGRATION OF BAEKJE PEOPLE TO JAPAN
Around the beginning of the 5th century, there was a major transformation in cooking techniques that were introduced to Japan from Korea. Previously, the Japanese cooked rice in a reddish brown soft clay pot over fire. By the 5th century, however, a huge number of Koreans had immigrated to Japan and introduced a fireplace combined with earthenware steaming vessel and other pots. As this cooking method became common in Japan, a new type of earthenware was produced by Japanese pottery-making techniques. Soft-paste earthenware produced using beating technique had been introduced from Korea to Japan and named by Japanese academics Korean-type pottery. However, because this soft-paste pottery was used everyday unlike hard-paste pottery, it is likely that much of this pottery production used the techniques that had been around in Japan despite the fact that the Korean-type pottery was introduced from Korea to Japan. For this reason, this Korean-style pottery has been attracting a great deal of interest from Japanese archaeologists as an important material that could provide some detailed information about the lifestyles of Korean immigrants to Japan.
Of all Korean-style pottery, that beaten with bird feet patterns was introduced by Baekje. This type of pottery with beaten bird feet patterns has been discovered in the northern Kyushu and Kinki area, mainly from the excavations at the Nagahara historic site in Osaka. Particularly noteworthy is the excavation NG95-36 where six pieces of soft-paste pottery including a steaming vessel, a bowl with flat foot, and a jar were discovered together (Plate 3-1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8) (Sakurai 1998). Given that the color of and the clay used for these six pieces are the same, they all seem to be produced near the Nagahara site. The same site also yielded soft-paste pottery with surfaces beaten with parallel lines and cross strips (Plate 3-2, 5) and cups with a handle that are very similar to the ones discovered at the Jukmak-dong historic site (Plate 3-9), testifying that a large number of Koreans from Baekje indeed lived in the area.
( Plate 3 ) Pottery beaten with bird feet patterns excavated in the Nagahara site no. NG95 during the 36th survey (revision of Sakurai 1998)
Korean-style pottery is important to understand the everyday lifestyles of Korean people who lived in Japan. As the study on the characteristics of Baekje-style soft-paste pottery progresses the residential areas of Baekje people in the other parts of Japan will be located.
03 HISTORIC SITE OF MT. JEONGJISAN AND PILLAR-WALL STRUCTURES
The pillar-wall structure found in 1996 at the historic site of Mt. Jeongjisan in Gongju has been attracting the public’s attention (National Museum of Gongju 1999). It was possibly a very important ritual facility of Baekje that was used for keeping the wife of King Muryeong (?~526) prior to burial. The discovery was tremendously important for Japanese academics studying Baekje Koreans in Japan because it could be one of the houses of Korean immigrants to Japan.
The construction of pillar-wall structures began with digging a square or rectangular foundation. Erecting several pillars along the inner edges of the foundation follows before filling the space between the pillars with walls of clay. In Japan, a pillar-wall structure built in the 7th century was discovered in 1982 at the Ano site north of Otsu City in Siga Prefecture. It was the first of its kind ever found in Japan despite the historical records of numerous Koreans having settled in the area. Numerous stone chambers with annexed coffin room built on square foundation were discovered along with clay miniatures of cooking fireplaces used for ancestral rituals in this area. Accordingly, there is both written and physical proof that Koreans lived in this area after the 6th century. Since the first excavation in 1982, these pillar-wall structures have been discovered in the vicinity of this site. Archaeologists strongly believe that they are Korean. Also, pillar-wall structures thought to have been constructed during the 5th to 7th century were discovered in Shiga, Nara, Osaka, and Hyogo. Korean-style pottery has been unearthed from the Nango site in Nara Prefecture and Oagata site in Osaka. In their vicinity were found massive iron working sites, which are more solid evidence that the pillar-wall structures and Baekje were related.
In Korea, pillar-wall structures were found at Gongsanseong Fortress and at the historic site on Mt. Jeongjisan. Although no formal study was conducted, it has been said that similar structures were found at Pungnap-dong Fortress in Seoul and Wolseonghaeja Waterway in Gyeongju. Given the relatively few excavations of settlements, pillar-wall structures could be found in areas outside the former Baekje Kingdom. Available evidence needs to be investigated further to determine if there is any Baekje element in historic sites in Japan where pillar-wall structures were discovered. As pillar-wall structures have been found at historic sites for ancestral rituals and fortresses, rather than in ordinary residential settlements, it is likely that the structure itself likely served a special function. As structures with stone foundations were also discovered at the Nango site in Japan, a comparative study of the function of the pillar-wall structures in both Korea and Japan is needed.
04 INTRODUCTION OF METALWORK TO JAPAN
Along with techniques for the production of ironware and pottery, the Kingdom of Baekje also introduced metalwork and goldsmith techniques to Japan in the 5th and 6th centuries, bringing great changes to Japanese culture. Hoping to discover the origin of gold metalwork excavated from ancient tombs in Japan, researchers have examined artifacts found throughout the Korean Peninsula. The findings of their researches, especially their comparative analyses of artifacts from Japan and the ancient tombs of Songsan-ri (including the artifacts discovered from the royal tomb of King Muryeong (501-523), the 25th monarch of Baekje) show that some artifacts—such as a belt with demon design, gold earrings, gilt bronze shoes, sword with a decorated ring pommel, and bronze bowls—that had been discovered in Japan were related to the Baekje. However, recent excavations at an ancient Gaya site are producing some types of artifacts that were previously believed to be only available in Baekje. In a broad sense, gold metalwork commonly found at sites of Baekje, Gaya, and Japan can be argued to be the artifacts of Baekje. However, there is a need to determine their provenance (whether those excavated in Japan were brought directly from Baekje or made in Japan, brought to Japan via Gaya, or made by Baekje artisans on the islands of Japan). This is not an easy task as it requires continued research. The next part will discuss this issue as exemplified by the studies of the gilt bronze shoes (Yoshii 1996).
There are three types of gilt bronze shoes that were produced on the Korean Peninsula: the Goguryeo Kingdom type, of which only the sole was made of gilt bronze; the Silla Kingdom type, which had the top and heel parts made of plates of gilt bronze jointed on the sides; and the Baekje Kingdom type, which had two side plates fixed on the top and the heel. Except for one case, all the gilt bronze shoes discovered in Japan were made by fixing two side plates to the top and the heel. Accordingly, they are considered Baekje-style shoes. After probing the production techniques of the Baekje shoes, I could classify them further into two sub-groups based on the shape and attachment techniques used for the side plates. Most of the first sub-group of Baekje shoes (Plate 4-2) were found on the Korean Peninsula but none have been discovered since the excavation of the tomb of King Muryeong (501-523), suggesting that no such shoes were made after his time. In contrast, all of the second sub-group were found in Japan (Plate 4-3) after King Muryeong’s reign and continued to be made until the early 7th century. The shoes that were produced in Japan after this period are assumed to have been made by artisans from Baekje. Meanwhile, although it is only natural to assume that the types of objects found in Baekje originated there, some cases are not that simple. For example, the shoes excavated from the Etafunayama mounded tomb in Kumamoto Prefecture (Plate 4-2) may be considered to have originated from Baekje based on their structure and the production techniques employed. However, the gilt bonze crown made by the same techniques (Plate 4-1) is in the style of a two-mountain broad-banded crown, which was popular in Japan in the 6th century. Technically, the shoes may be considered Baekje-style, but the gold crown is of a uniquely Japanese shape and was made along with the shoes. This raises two questions: Where were they made and how were they distributed? The answers are elusive. In seeking the answers, however, the interrelationship between Baekje and Japan becomes apparent.
05 INTRODUCTION OF THE CORRIDOR-STYLE STONE CHAMBER TOMB TO JAPAN
In the 4th century, the main burial facility of the keyhole-shaped mounded tomb in Japan was the pit-style stone chamber. This type of chamber was completely closed with ceiling stones, after the coffin of the deceased was buried. Some coffins of tombs were made of stone instead of wood, and the some chambers were closed by clay instead of stone. However, pit-style chambers were made for only one person. Compared to the pit-style stone chamber, the corridor-style stone chamber was made to accept more than two coffins as it is a crypt with a stone passageway that can be reopened and closed. The emergence of the corridor-style stone chamber tomb in Japan was due to Baekje’s influence. Furthermore, recent studies showed that corridor-style stone chamber tombs were introduced to the northern Kyushu region at different times and in different ways than in the Kinki region.
The earliest corridor-style stone chamber tomb in northern Kyushu is the Taniguchi mounded tomb in Saga Prefecture dating from the latter half of the 4th century (Plate 5). There are two stone chambers placed side by side in which stone coffins are laid. The artifacts discovered indicate that this tomb was a typical pit-style stone chamber tomb. However, when a second excavation was conducted for its preservation, a corridor leading to the outside through an entrance on top of the setback was found revealing that this is a pit-corridor-style stone chamber tomb (Hamatama-machi Educational Commission of Saga Prefecture 1991). After the Taniguchi mounded tomb was constructed, genuine corridor-style stone chamber tombs and pit-corridor-style stone chamber tombs were constructed in the Sukisaki mounded tomb and Roji mounded tomb in Fukuoka Prefecture. The chambers have rectangular foundations with the front area wider than the back area, and the passage into each tomb is at the center. Among the ancient tombs concentrated around Kumamoto Prefecture, a stone chamber with a rectangular foundation and vault ceiling was discovered. During the fifth century, numerous corridor-style stone chamber tombs were built in northern Kyushu. In other regions of Japan, pit-style stone chamber tombs were still being constructed during that time.
Archaeologists disagree as to the origin of corridor-style stone chamber tombs in northern Kyushu. Most believe that corridor-style stone chamber tombs were introduced to Japan by Baekje when Hanseong (today’s Seoul) was the kingdom’s capital, given that the structure of stone chambers of Sukisaki and Roji mounded tombs resemble corridor-style stone chamber tombs in Garak-dong and Bangi-dong, Seoul. However, it was confirmed that pottery excavated from the corridor-style stone chamber tombs in Garak-dong and Bangi-dong were made of Silla-style pottery from the latter half of the 6th century, giving rise to the theory among Korean archaeologists that these ancient tombs were the tombs of Silla period or later. As a result, Korean and Japanese archaeologists disagree on the origin of corridor-style stone chamber tombs in Japan. On the other hand, it is also noteworthy that corridor-style stone chamber tombs that date back to the Hanseong period were newly discovered on former Baekje territory, as in the cases of tomb no. 12, 13, and 14 in Bungang/Seojeok-ri (Yi Nam-seok 1997). Interestingly, the entrance to the stone chamber of Bungang/Seojeok-ri tomb is one level higher, a common feature of the early pit corridor-style stone chamber tombs in northern Kyushu. If the changes that had occurred in the tombs of this structure on former Baekje territory are identified, the influence Baekje exerted on the birth and development of corridor-style stone chamber stone in northern Kyushu will be revealed. While corridor-style stone chamber tomb in northern Kyushu originated from Baekje, the composition of burial goods and funeral ritual were of traditional style which greatly differ from those discovered in Kinki.
In the Kinki region, a different type of corridor-style stone chamber tomb came into being in the latter half of the 5th century. The Takaida-yama mounded tomb in Osaka (Plate 6) is exemplary of early corridor-style stone chambers from this area (Kashiwara Municipal Educational Commission 1996). At the center of the round tomb (22 meters in diameter), there is a corridor-style stone chamber with a rectangular foundation (2.34 meters in width and 3.73 meters in length) and an entrance at the right. The ceiling is missing and is assumed to have been a vault ceiling or similar structure. Although the tombs were robbed, numerous artifacts were still there at the time of excavation. A bronze iron was among them, and it is similar to the one that had been found in the royal tomb of King Muryeong.
Stone chamber of Takaida-yama mounded tomb is similar to the corridor-style stone chamber tombs in Songsan-ri in that they were both constructed with thin slabstones, have an entrance on the right and the entrance was closed up with a stack of stones. The only difference is found in the chamber foundation. The Songsan-ri type stone chamber is square, and Takaida-yama’s is rectangular. Some academics believe this difference supports the speculation that the rectangular stone chamber of Takaida-yama mounded tomb appeared after the royal tomb of King Muryeong had been constructed. This means that the construction of the rectangular stone chamber of Takaida-yama was done later than previously known. However, some stone chambers with rectangular foundations, like Tomb no. 1981-6 in Pyojeong-ri, date back to the 5th century. More excavations of corridor-style stone chamber tombs should be conducted before specific details on the dates and the styles can be known.
The Takaida-yama mounded tomb is also note-worthy in that the influence of Baekje can be seen not only in the structure and burial goods but also in the funeral ritual. The findings show that two people were buried in the tomb. They were laid parallel to each other along the main axis of the chamber and it is speculated that the heads probably faced the rear wall. The coffins were probably made of wood because coffin pegs were found around the bodies. Ancient Japanese tombs traditionally have two kinds of wooden coffins: one was a carved out log and the other was an assembly of thick wooden planks. Typically, nails were not used. However, nails and an iron clamp have been found in some pit-style stone chamber tombs and it is possible that these pit tombs were influenced by the pit tombs of the Gaya Kingdom. Compared with Gaya-style pit-style stone chamber tombs, wooden coffins built for the Takaida-yama mounded tombs are presumed to have been a box-type for which nails were used to affix the panels (short and long) as well as the base and the side. Although this type of wood coffin shows some differences in nail sizes, assembly methods, and the like, it is similar to the corridor-style stone chamber tombs of Baekje.
Placing two corpses in a stone chamber was also something new. Based on the burial accessories and the size of the wood coffin excavated, it is presumed that the man was laid on the left and the woman was laid on the right, as seen from the entrance. The practice of burying a man and a woman together was common in corridor-style stone chamber tombs of Baekje. The couple in the royal tomb of King Muryeong is confirmed to have been a husband and wife. Many corridor-style stone chamber tombs discovered in Japan have two chambers or more in parallel. According to physical anthropologists, most couples found in Japanese tombs were presumably brother and sister until the 5th century. Tombs in which husband and wife couples were buried together appeared only in the 6th century in Japan. In the case of the Takaida-yama mounded tomb, there is no evidence showing the relationship of the two corpses, but if the couple turns out to be a husband and a wife, it will be the first such known case in Japan.
Another interesting practice found in the Takaida-yama mounded tomb is the burial of pottery at the entrance of the chamber. In most ancient tombs excavated thus far, pottery was scattered on top of the entrance to the tomb or on its slope. The custom of burying pottery inside the stone chamber was done only after corridor-style stone chamber tombs were introduced to the Kinki region. Such a change suggests that the funeral ritual performed with the use of pottery became of greater importance. The Takaida-yama mounded tomb can be regarded as an early example of the custom of burying pottery as burial gifts.
The Takaida-yama mounded tomb may have been influenced by elements introduced from Baekje in terms of not only the structure of the stone chamber and burial accessories but also the funeral ritual procedure. Given the characteristics of the tomb and the location of the Oagata-nami site to the south (a huge blacksmith area where Korean artisans likely lived), the archaeologist who participated in the excavation of the tomb presumed that the occupant of the tomb was a member of the royal family of the Baekje Kingdom and was the leader of the artisans in the area. Since Baekje tombs were introduced to the Takaida-yama, the features of the Baekje corridor-style stone chamber tomb were adopted by the Japanese and became widespread throughout the country, resulting in drastic changes in the funeral system in Japan. The influence of Baekje is palpable in the Takaida-yama tombs and in the general burial practices.
IV BAEKJE AND JAPAN IN THE 7TH CENTURY
During the Sabi years, Baekje developed a unique Buddhist culture, which exerted great influence on the Kingdom of Silla and Japan. Baekje tried to expand its power in alliance with the Goguryeo and Japan, but was defeated and eventually destroyed by the allied forces of Silla and Tang in 660. After the fall of Baekje, many of its people went to Japan. The next section discusses the changes that occurred in Japan as a result of the massive influx of Baekje culture.
01 INFLUENCE OF ROOF TILE POTTERS
Buddhism was officially introduced to Japan when King Seong (523-554) of Baekje sent a statue of Buddha and a sutra to King Kinmei of Japan. At that time, there were confrontations within Japan over the acceptance of Buddhism. Soganoumata won over Mononobenomoriya who was originally against Buddhism and, in 588, the construction of Japan's first full-scale Buddhist temple known as Asukadera Temple began. In 596, the construction of a pagoda and a part of a Buddhist monastery was completed and in 609, the Sakyamuni main Buddha statue, which was fashioned by Kuratsukurinotori, an artisan with Korean roots, was completed. The building of Asukadera Temple marked the beginning of construction of many temples in the rest of Japan and the proliferation of Buddhist culture.
In order to construct Asukadera Temple, the know-how to build a structure with a tiled roof that had not been unavailable in Japan then was required. Historical documents state that a number of technicians and artisans that included four potters who specialized in making roof tiles were dispatched to Japan from Baekje. This record is easily confirmed by the round eave tiles of Asukadera Temple, which resemble those with lotus flowers, the most representative design of Baekje. There are two types of lotus designs used for the round eave tiles of Asukadera Temple in expressing warped petals. One type uses a small papilla ornament to decorate the ends of the petals (Plate 7: 3~8) while the other type make the ends of the petals spitted (Plate 7: 1, 2). Japanese academics distinguish them by calling the former group the “star group” and the latter the “flower group.” Recent studies revealed that these two groups share common features with those of Baekje round eave tiles with respect to not only decorative designs but also production technique (Hanatani 1993). The so-called “star group” round eave tile was made by a circular antefix made on the wheel and round tile that has a lip on the butt end to receiving a pipe joint. The “flower group” round eave tile was made by circular antefix, the back of which was flat because it was not made on the wheel, and round tile, which was made by combining the flat back side of the tile. This production technique was always used, though the designs of roof tiles were changed. The production technique of tiles and the technique to circular antefixes with round tiles were similar to those used to make round eave tiles in Baekje. Therefore, the “star group” and “flower group” tiles were created by two different groups of Baekje artisans skilled in different production techniques. They began producing roof tiles on the islands of Japan.
One important task for academics engaged in the study of early roof tiles in Japan is to find out how these two groups of tile makers from Baekje exerted influence on the construction of early Buddhist temples in Japan. For example, it turned out that the “star group” tile makers from Baekje, who were involved in the construction of Asukadera Temple, also produced the roof tiles for the Toyuradera Temple as well as the Wakakusa-garan area of the Horyuji Temple where the wooden statue of the Buddhist Goddess of Mercy of Baekje is housed. More research on roof tile production techniques in ancient Korea and Japan should soon lead to a greater understanding of the roles that Baekje tile makers played.
02 BAEKJE ARISTOCRATS LIVING IN JAPAN IN EXILE
In 660, the kingdom of Baekje fell to the allied armies of Silla and Tang. There was soon a movement to restore Baekje under the leadership of Prince Pung-jang, son of King Uija (641-660), who had been staying in Japan. Prince Pung-jang returned from Japan after the fall of Baekje, but the restoration movement failed. Many Baekje people then came to Japan as exiles. Prince Seong-wang (son of King Uija) and his family were at the center of these refugees, and their last name was Kudara-ou (meaning Baekje Wang family). Their settlement in Nanba, Osaka was established as Kudara (Baekje) County before 715. Kudara County was smaller than the other counties divided into several areas named “East side,” “West side,” and “South side,” which were related to area names of the five-division system of the Baekje Kingdom. Most of the people who lived in these places were Koreans from Baekje. It is also said that there used to be a temple called “Baekjesa.” All these facts suggest that the Kudara County served as a base for Baekje people who came to Japan as refugees.
In 1996 and 1997, the Saikudani site in old Kudara County was excavated and valuable artifacts that may provide clues to their situation were discovered together (Osaka Cultural Heritage Association 1999). Numerous artifacts that are mostly from the 7th and 8th centuries were unearthed at the site that is in a small valley. Some were pieces of pottery with inscriptions in Chinese characters of “白濟尼” (Plate 8-2), “白尼寺” and “白尼” (Plate 8-3). As pointed out earlier, it is known that a temple called “Baekjesa” (Baekje Temple) used to be in this region. This theory was given support by a pot discovered at this site with the inscription of “僧寺 (Buddhist Temple)” (Plate 8-1). These calligraphic inscriptions strongly suggest that there were the Baekje Temple and another temple for Buddhist nuns called “白濟尼寺” in Kudara County. Remains of two temples have not yet been discovered. When such relics are found, we will be able to glimpse into the religious life of Baekje people who lived in exile in Japan.
Another important accomplishment of the excavation of the Saikudani site was the discovery of copper coins first minted in 708 called wadokaijin. The excavation team reported that it was highly likely that wadokaijin were minted in the vicinity of the excavation site. However, the problem is that no historical documents make reference to coinage facilities in the area. On the other hand, the excavation report suggested two possibilities: coins were minted in private or coinage was permitted by the Japanese government due to the close relationship between the family of Kudara-ou and the Japanese Emperor. Currently, it is difficult to judge which theory is correct. Whatever the case may be, there were technicians capable of minting coins independently under the Baekje Wang family.
By the 8th century, descendants of the family of Kudara-ou led active lives in the northern part of Japan in particular. The most famous member of the Kudara-ou family in Japan was Gyeongbok, a great-grandson of Prince Seon-gwang. He lived in the northeast region for a long time. In 749, he made the first-ever discovery of gold in Japan. He donated the gold he found to Todaiji Temple to be used for the gilt on the Vairocana Buddha statue then being fashioned. By this time, the Kudara-ou family had gained influence in Katano, Osaka and they built a Baekje Temple there too. In addition to assuming active roles in Japanese society, the descendants of Baekje kept their culture alive.
This paper approached the relationship of Japan and Baekje from archaeological viewpoints, focusing on only a few issues. In addition to questions raised in this paper, many issues remain to be solved to better understand the influence of Baekje culture on Japanese society. Some of the compelling evidence of Baekje influence are the strong resemblance between the square-shaped, moat-surrounded tombs that have been discovered on the west coast of Chungcheongnam-do Province in Korea and those from the Yayoi period in Japan; the relationship between the stone chambers in Neungsan-ri, Korea and the mounded tombs built at the end of the Kofun Period in Japan; and the Baekje-style ancient mountain fortresses scattered in western Japan. The academics in Korea and Japan should exchange findings of new excavations and conduct joint researches to prove definitively whether these and other remains of the past are attributable to Baekje influence.