Introduction

According to long-held traditional beliefs of the Joseon period (朝鮮, 1392–1910), objects simply served their owners as a means for achieving virtue. Excessive feeling for an object was discouraged through a belief known as wanmul sangji (玩物喪志), which is the idea that a preoccupation with an object could lead to the loss of selfhood (in short, that material wealth could result in spiritual poverty). However, around the turn of the eighteenth century, people came to place as much value on objects as on humans, at least in terms of the former becoming a subject of people’s interest and study. A belief arose that the pitfalls of materialism could be circumvented if people could avoid becoming fixated on or bound by objects. Recognizing the nature of objects and respecting their value emerged as important beliefs (Son Junghee 2012, 39–51). Once the view of objects changed, people in the eighteenth century started to become demonstrably engrossed with even trivial objects, and began taking an interest not only in appreciating paintings and calligraphy, cultivating flowers, and collecting books, but in animals and plants as well. As records on objects’ history and provenance increased in detail, objects came to gain a higher value and what was once considered taboo became the focus of natural history research (Jung Min 2007, 18–38). Rather than examining royal ceramics used for dining or ceremonial purposes, which were prominent types of ceramics in the Joseon era, this study focuses on ceramics that were collected, displayed, and bestowed for the purposes of admiration, trade, or gifting. They are here collectively referred to as “treasured objects,” or wanmul (玩物), and the study seeks to examine how they were perceived and valued at the time. This article draws on a broad range of contextual materials, including personal essays and official court records, as a means to examine how ceramics were socially positioned and perceived in relation to the individuals who used, crafted, and traded in them. It treats ceramics as part of material culture and reveals how culture is formed within the interrelationship between people and ceramics. From the Goryeo (高麗, 918–1392) to Joseon periods, it is rare to find traces of the practices of treating ceramics as objects of collection and appreciation per se, but conjectures can be offered based on a variety of historical records and collections of personal writings.

Ceramics as Objects of Appreciation

This section examines personal writings and diaries to find examples of ceramics being perceived as objects of interest, admiration, and appreciation and it identifies what kinds of ceramics were used as royally conferred largesse at official events, as diplomatic offerings by delegations, or for reciprocal gift-giving. It also seeks to investigate those used for display in a scholar’s study and hyanggak (香閣), both of which were adjunct structures to a residence where the men of the house studied, received guests, drank tea, and appreciated the arts.

Subjects of Interest and Appreciation

Appreciation and admiration for a wide range of goods and regional products can be traced back to records from the Goryeo period. The twelfth-century text Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing (宣和奉使高麗圖經, Illustrated account of the Chinese Embassy to the Goryeo court in the Xuanhe era) by Xu Jing (徐兢, dates unknown) includes mention of a number of banquets set in the Goryeo capital city of Gaegyeong (present-day Kaesong in North Korea) honoring delegations from the Northern Song dynasty during the Xuanhe era (宣和, 1119–1125). It reveals glimpses of Goryeo appreciation for the craftwork, ceramics, and premium teas of the Northern Song dynasty. Descriptions of banquets for Goryeo officials given by envoys of the Northern Song emperor show that curiosities, antiques, rare paintings and books, incense, and fine teas were displayed throughout the banquet halls. The intricacy and novelty of the objects were said to have captured the attention of Goryeo officials, who, each according to his tastes, selected objects for themselves as gifts at the end of the banquet (“Assembly of the Guest Envoys” in Banquet Rituals, ch. 26, Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tujing). The Northern Song dynasty enjoyed a resurgence of appreciation for antique objects, including an interest in ancient bronzeware which inspired the production of ceramic imitations. The ease of producing ceramic objects in the forms of antique bronzeware helped meet the surging demand, and these tastes and production trends likely made their way into Goryeo (Lee Yongjin 2006, 183–185) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Illustration of Antiquities (博古圖) by Liu Songnian (劉松年, died c. 1224) (detail). Song, 12th–13th century. Slight color on silk. 56.5 x 128.3 cm. National Palace Museum, Taipei (National Palace Museum 2003, Fig. 2)

Meanwhile, Goryeo celadon had been known in China since the Song (宋, 960–1279) and Yuan (元, 1271–1368) dynasties. In Cao Zhao (曹昭, active in the 14th century)’s Gegu yaolun (格古要論, Essential criteria of antiquities), published in the early Ming period (completed in 1388 and revised with additions in 1459), Goryeo celadon is compared to the Longquan celadon of China. Among Goryeo records, the Dongguk yi sangguk jip (東國李相國集, Collected works of Minister Yi of Korea), a collection of writings by Yi Gyubo (李奎報, 1168–1241) includes an ode to the color and beauty of Goryeo celadon, indicating that ceramics were already an object of interest and appreciation at the time (Jang Namwon 2006, 290–291) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Celadon Girl-shaped Water Dropper. Goryeo, 12th–13th century. Height: 11.2 cm, Width: 6.0 cm. The Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka

Nevertheless, it was not until late in the Joseon period that Goryeo ceramics began to receive attention as prized possessions or collectibles (Jang Namwon 2009b). Referencing both the Song dynasty work Xiuzhongjin (袖中錦, Brocade in the sleeve) by Taiping Laoren (太平老人, dates unknown) and historical records from Goryeo that mention ceramics being sent to China during the reign of King Chungnyeol (忠烈王, r. 1274–1308) at the end of the Goryeo period, Yi Ik (李瀷, 1681–1763) claimed that the distinctive jade-green hue of Goryeo celadon, known as bisaek (秘色), to be the best under heaven. He once composed a poem about the origins of Goryeo jade-green celadon and a jade-green celadon cup and stand into which liquor from a gourd-shaped ewer was poured (Seongho seonsaeng jeonjip, vol. 4). With his commentary on the glaze color, form, and quality of celadon ware, these texts by Yi provide actual cases of searching for the origins of celadon and demonstrate the uses of celadon objects.

In his Yeongyeongjae jeonjip (硏經齋全集, Complete writings of Seong Haeeung), Seong Haeeung (成海應, 1760–1839) mentions that a distinct jade-colored Goryeo celadon jar was excavated from the site of the Kaesong estate of the late Goryeo period scholar An Hyang (安珦, 1243–1306). This celadon jar was the property of Sim Sanggyu (沈象奎, 1766–1838), but the literati painter Sin Wi (申緯, 1769–1845) is said to have borrowed it and failed to return it for eight years. Later, during the reign of King Gojong (高宗, r. 1863–1907), Yi Yuwon (李裕元, 1814–1888) described this same celadon piece as bearing an image of six cranes and eight rising clusters of clouds. It is presumed that the object in question was a celadon maebyeong (梅甁, literally “plum vase”) inlaid with cranes and clouds (Fig. 3). Yi went on to discuss a celadon piece in his own possession, mentioning its fret design and milky celadon color. Interestingly, Sin Wi also wrote about the celadon vase with crane and cloud design he borrowed. Along with details on its form and decoration, Sin recorded his impression of the clouds and birds in flight having a transcendental atmosphere evoking a dwelling for the immortals. Based on his comments, it appears the celadon ware was a jar ornamented with a decoration of cranes and clouds. Sin Wi also used the phrase “milky celadon color” to describe the distinct shade of the Goryeo celadon glaze. Among Sim Sanggyu, Sin Wi, Seong Haeeung, and Yi Yuwon, there was a cycle of interest, appreciation, collection, and admiration that endured over an extended period of time with the celadon vase as the intermediary object.

Fig. 3. Celadon Maebyeong with Inlaid Crane and Cloud Design. Goryeo, 12th–13th century. Height: 37.2 cm. Ehwa Womans University Museum

Yi Yuwon also wrote about a ceramic work excavated from the Munmyo Shrine (文廟) dedicated to Confucius in Pyongyang which was shown to him by Gim Heunggeun (金興根, 1796–1870). Yi described the object as having a cloud and fretwork pattern and a color that struck the beholder with awe, adding that it was impossible to produce such a work in his day. Yi’s thoughts on ceramics are mirrored in his other writings, so while his personal experience and knowledge form the basis for his ideas, they are also an interesting reflection of how the literati of his time passed on, admired, and discussed ceramics.

The Joseon scholar Gim Jeonghui (金正喜, 1786–1856) compared dynamic, refined, and dignified writings to the unique jade-green color of celadon (Epistle 33, vol. 3, Wandang jeonjip). In the poem “Byeonghwa” (甁花, Flowers in a vase), he also applies the expression “500 year-old jade-green” to describe a painting of a celadon vase with flowers. In his poem “Songpa sujak” (松坡酬酢, Exchanging poems in Songpa) included in the Yeoyu-dang jeonseo (與猶堂全書, Complete works of Jeong Yakyong), Jeong Yakyong (丁若鏞, 1762–1836) mentions receiving a gift of narcissus from Gim Jeonghui. According to this text, Gim’s father received narcissi from an envoy who had recently returned from China, and Gim planted them in a Goryeo celadon flowerpot he cherished before sending it to Jeong. The passage makes it clear that Jeong noted the Goreyo celadon ware, and it shows that men at this time had knowledge on the antique items they exchanged among themselves.

Official Gifts Bestowed by the Government

There are numerous examples of Chinese and Japanese ceramics making their way into the country and being used during the late Joseon period. Studies of excavated ceramics and heirlooms have recently revealed that a considerable volume of imported ceramic wares were used in the late Joseon period (Kim Mikyung 2009, 308–311; Koo Hyein 2009, 102–105; Jang Hyojin 2014, 131–134). Foreign-made ceramics that entered the country officially as diplomatic gifts or those that had been presented to the royal court and officials were of particular interest to people in Joseon since they represented new, never-before-seen objects. The following examines a few such cases.

A record from 1783 in the Joseon wangjo sillok (朝鮮王朝實錄, Annals of the Joseon dynasty) includes a report of the chief envoy Jeong Jongyeom (鄭存謙, 1722–1794) and deputy envoy Hong Yangho (洪良浩, 1724–1802) of the Dongji saeunsa (冬至謝恩使, the winter solstice mission of appreciation to the Qing court), who both returned from Yanjing, present-day Beijing, the previous year with gifts of ceramics. Their reports relate that they attended a banquet at the Ziguangge (紫光閣, Pavilion of Purple Light), adjacent to the Forbidden City (紫禁城, Zijincheng), and that the emperor bestowed imperial gifts upon the attendees. Jeong received three rolls of silk, three rolls of Zhangzhou velvet, five small rolls of four-ply silk, five small rolls of five-ply silk, ten Hebao pouches, and one decorated porcelain cup. Hong was gifted one roll of silk, one roll of Zhangzhou velvet, three small rolls of eight-ply silk, three rolls of five-ply silk, six Hebao pouches, and one decorated porcelain cup (Entry for the 27th day of the second month of the seventh year, Jeongjo sillok, vol. 15). This document demonstrates that envoys were presented with Chinese silk and decorated ceramic cups, among other gifts, although specifics on the silk and ceramics are unknown. Furthermore, the Palace Museum in Beijing counts among its collection a colored painting titled Imperial Banquet in the Garden of Ten Thousand Trees (萬樹園賜宴圖, Wanshuyuan ciyan tu), produced in 1755 by Giuseppe Castiglione (1688–1766), also known as Lang Shining (郎世寧), and other painters of the Qing court. The painting includes a scene depicting an arrangement of items presumed to be official gifts to be bestowed by the royal court. The Garden of Ten Thousand Trees (萬樹園, Wanshuyuan) was located in the Imperial Summer Palace (避暑山莊, Bishu shanzhuang) at Chengde, Hebei Province, and the painting captures a banquet celebrating the submission of Amursana (阿睦爾撒納, 1723–1757), the prince of the Khoit-Oirat tribe of the Junggar Basin (准噶爾部), to the Qing government. The right end of the painting features an ornate tent with piles of scrolls and ceramics (Fig. 4). These items are presumed to be gifts intended for honored guests or those who came to offer submission.

Fig. 4. Imperial Banquet in the Garden of Ten Thousand Trees by Giuseppe Castiglione and others (detail). Qing, 1755. Color on silk. 221.5 x 419.0 cm. The Palace Museum, Beijing (The Palace Museum 1995, p. 116)

Although the above painting concerns different recipients of a banquet, if we presume that banquets for envoys from Joseon and representatives of other countries involved similar situations and gifts, the silk and decorated ceramics provided must have been gifts of high value that became treasured possessions to the recipients. In particular, scrolls of silk and paper as well as ceramics embellished with exotic motifs and colors are the most common subjects depicted in late Joseon paintings of books and scholar’s accoutrements known as chaekgado (冊架圖) and paintings of still life known as gimyeongdo (器皿圖). Thus, it is highly likely that gifts for envoys were among the objects that were adored and appreciated in both China and Joseon.

There are also records of ceramics being used as gifts in official exchanges with Japan. In 1711, Im Sugan (任守幹, 1665–1721), a deputy envoy of the Tongsinsa (通信使, diplomatic mission to Japan), was staying in the port city of Busan before boarding a ship. At this time, the Joseon envoys were presented with a porcelain cup with a plant design from the Japanese ship owner and an ornately decorated vessel from the governor of Nagato Province (長門國) in Japan. In December 1800, a Japanese condolence delegation for the late King Jeongjo (正祖, r. 1776–1800) carried gifts that included a painted bottle. There is also a record of the chief and deputy Tongsinsa envoys on another mission from 1811 receiving polychrome stackable boxes, a stemmed brazier, and a polychrome Nishikite (錦手) bowl decorated in gold as gifts from a Japanese magistrate.

During the diplomatic mission of 1811, Japanese officials distributed a range of miscellaneous items to the Joseon delegation of 373 persons from 31 different ranks. Among the delegation, 17 persons of seven ranks were said to have received plates, bowls with covers, stackable boxes, and other porcelain wares. In 1876, Gim Gisu (金綺秀, born 1832) and his party of envoys were dispatched on a goodwill diplomatic mission, known as Susinsa (修信使), to Japan, and among the reciprocal gifts the Japanese sent back to Joseon were stoneware vases from the Satsuma (薩摩) region. Gim Sanghyeon (金尙鉉, 1811–1890), the minister of rites (禮曹判書, yejo panseo), and Yi Inmyeong (李寅命, born 1819), the second minister of rites (禮曹參判, yejo champan), are said to have each received a pair of these Satsuma vases.

On an 1882 Susinsa mission, Bak Yeonghyo (朴泳孝, 1861–1939) received ceramic wares including bottles and cups as parting gifts from the Japanese side. Along with gifts dispatched by the Japanese emperor to the Joseon king, Bak’s party received flower vases from high-ranking officials and adjutants. During the same 1882 trip, Min Yeongik (閔泳翊, 1860–1914) presented red ginseng, fans, brushes, and other items as gifts and received in return a pair of stoneware vases and two rolls of textiles from the Japanese emperor (Choi Kyunghwa 2009, 205–206). The delegation of 1882 included Bak Yeonghyo, Gim Okgyun, Seo Gwangbeom, and Min Youngik. It was dispatched by the Joseon court as a final gesture of apology following the completion of the Treaty of Jemulpo in 1882 between Korea and Japan in order to express regrets over the aftermath of the military uprising known as the Imo gullan (壬午軍亂). Bak kept a memoir of the trip to Japan titled Sahwa giryak (使和記略, Record of a delegation to Japan), which mentioned that Joseon’s official gifts to Japan included Goryeo celadon. Upon arrival in Japan, along with the sovereign’s message, the mission sent four different types of gifts to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. These included a copy of the Yeosa jegang (麗史提綱, Short history of Goryeo) consisting of 23 books, one Goryeo ceramic piece, one silver table service set, and ten hwamunseok (花紋席) sedge mats from Ganghwado Island. Details about the Goryeo ceramic ware are unknown, but in view of the strained political situation, it is likely that the gifts were intended to reflect Japanese tastes and preferences. One of the Joseon representatives at the Treaty of Jemulpo was the aforementioned Yi Yuwon, who had great enthusiasm for Goryeo ceramics and was then serving as the chief state councilor (領議政, yeonguijeong). He had visited Japan previously and was relatively knowledgeable about the country, so there is a strong likelihood Yi would have advised upon the gifts to be presented by the delegation.

As explained above, ceramics being bestowed and received as gifts during official diplomatic exchanges with China and Japan were not uncommon. It is likely that ceramics were not merely presented as regional products, but as gifts meant to reflect the recipients’ tastes. There are also a number of cases where Goryeo ceramics were included among the offerings from the Joseon court to foreign countries. For example, Empress Myeongseong (明成皇后, 1851–1895) gifted a celadon bowl to Karl Ivanovich Veber (1841–1910), the then consul general of Russia in Seoul. The bowl which is now housed at the Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography in Saint Petersburg. A celadon ewer with a cover granted by the same Empress Myeongseong to Lillias Horton Underwood (1859–1921) is currently in the Brooklyn Museum’s collection. There is a high probability that the Goryeo celadon provided as gifts were esteemed objects in the Joseon court collection.

From these examples, it is evident that official visits abroad were conducive to learning about new objects and collecting them. In his Yeolha ilgi (熱河日記, The Jehol Diary), Bak Jiwon (朴趾源, 1737–1805) writes about a meeting with a Chinese merchant named Tian Shi Ke (田仕可) in Shenyang, Liaoning Province, China. Tian was deeply knowledgeable about the history of ancient vessels, and Bak pursued the meeting because he wished to obtain rare and elegant antiques and “four treasures of the study” (文房四寶, munbangsabo). Tian advised that such sophisticated objects might be found on Liulichang Street (璃璃廠) in Beijing, but that coming across items like jade-hued ceramics or ancient bronzewares in Shenyang would be difficult (“Sokjae pildam” in Yeonamjip, vol. 11, Yeolha ilgi). The jade-colored ceramics are here thought to refer to celadon wares from the Song period or their imitations. Judging from the context, it is highly likely that Bak was seeking antique wares, such as Chinese celadon and bronze vessels. The text also describes Bak and Tian freely discussing antiquities, which implies that Bak had prior knowledge of Chinese ceramics and antiquities. First-hand experience and the ability to identify such objects would have been especially important given that Bak was attempting to purchase antiquities and scholar’s accoutrements during the diplomatic trip.

Furnishings for Studies and Hyanggak

Not much is known about how ceramics were collected and managed at the royal court during the Joseon period. Examples from surviving private writings do provide some idea of what types of ceramics were collected and displayed as treasured possessions by private owners. In order to commission epitaph tablets, Yi Hagon (李夏坤, 1677–1724), pen name Damheon (澹軒), observed the production of royal porcelain while staying near the Bunwon (分院) official kilns in Gwangju, Gyeonggi-do Province, and he left an impression in poetry of what he witnessed. He wrote favorably of a toad-shaped water dropper and of the shape of a Chinese-style octagonal white porcelain jar. He also referred to white porcelain ware decorated with Chinese characters in underglaze cobalt-blue (Dutacho, fasc. 3). What is interesting is that Yi was among the most prominent bibliophiles of the late Joseon period. After refusing an offer of a government position, he built Wanwigak House (宛委閣) in Jincheon, Chungcheongbuk-do Province, and kept a library there that came to be referred to as Mangwollu Pavilion (萬卷樓, literally “pavilion with ten thousand books”) in reference to the more than ten thousand books in the collection (Fig. 5). Numerous renowned Joseon scholars visited Yi’s library to access its rare texts. Unlike other libraries, which mainly housed classical Confucian texts, historical records, and collected works of the literati, Yi’s collection at Wanwigak House featured a variety of ancient books, paintings, and calligraphy. This may indicate that painting and calligraphy had been accepted by the scholar-bureaucrats of the second half of the eighteenth century as a cultural product rather than a simple hobby for dilettantes (Park Yongman 2008, 71–72). Although information on collections of specific objects has yet to be uncovered, if Yi’s library was large enough to have an intellectual impact, there is reason to believe he would have also possessed an array of scholar’s accoutrements and antique items.

Fig. 5. Ruins of Wanwigak House built by Yi Hagon in his summer mansion in Chopyeong-myeon, Jincheon-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do Province (Image from http://kansawi.egloos.com/5750605)

Meanwhile, Yu Manju (兪晩柱, 1755–1788) reveals a love for scholar’s accoutrements in his diary Heumyeong (欽英, Admiration of excellence), particularly in the section about contemplations and readings. He kept the diary for 13 years until his death. One of his texts mentions that ostentatious homes, attire, and luxury goods were frowned upon, but that when it came to scholar’s accoutrements, extravagance was seen as a form of elegance capable of bringing peace and purity to the body, and that even the spirits would be forgiving such extravagance and turn a blind eye (Ahn Dae-hoe 2007, 27–28). This passage from the Heumyeong hints at the reason why details on the history and provenance of ceramic collections are not available prior to the late Joseon period, while different activities and trends related to the appreciation of books, paintings, and calligraphic works, such as collecting and cataloguing, have been recorded well before the late Joseon period. The reason behind this was the concept of wanmul sangji, which, as mentioned previously, purported that a preoccupation with trivialities would weaken a person’s spirit. The common perception was that extravagance involving vessels or clothes was degrading and antithetical to refinement. In contrast, luxury expressed in scholar’s accoutrements was permissible, which evinces the sharp increase of scholar’s accoutrements made from ceramics and other materials starting in the eighteenth century (Fig. 6).

Fig. 6. White porcelain scholar’s accoutrements. Late Joseon. Height: 24.5 cm; 6.2 cm; 4.8 cm; 8.4 cm; 19.8 cm (by the order of Figs. 6-1 through 6-5). Ehwa Womans University Museum

In his Imwon simnyukji (林園十六誌, Sixteen treaties on rural life and economy), Seo Yugu (徐有榘, 1764–1845) categorized Chinese scholar’s accoutrements by referencing numerous Chinese books about collections from the Song dynasty onward. He recorded the way prized objects were displayed on top of a chest reserved for scholar’s accoutrements and placed particular emphasis on inkstones and water droppers among the displayed utensils, which also included paper and brushes, among other items. He is believed to have had considerable knowledge of and experience with such treasured objects (Seo Yugu 1966, 329–330).

In A Portrait of a Literatus Seeking Delight in the Arts (布衣風流圖, Pouipungnyudo), the artist Gim Hongdo (金弘道, 1745–1806) conveys the protagonist’s cultural tastes by depicting a bookcase; rolls of paper; a crackled ceramic bottle in the style of Ge ware (哥窑, Ch. geyao); a wine vessel in the ancient go (觚, Ch. gu) bronzeware style with coral, a ruyi (如意, scepter), and rolls of paper inside; a three-legged caldron in the ancient jeong (鼎, Ch. ding) bronzeware style; an inkstone and an inkstick; a brush; plantain leaves; a saenghwang (笙簧, free-reed musical instrument); a bipa (琵琶, lute); a gourd-shaped bottle; and a sword. Gim wrote on the left side of the painting, “I seek to spend all the days of my life in a house with clay walls and paper windows, never obtaining high office, simply reciting poetry.” These words speak to a desire for an unworldly life, yet the objects in the painting are patently the belongings of a prosperous member of the literati class (Fig. 7). This motif is a repetition of the Taoist theme seen in his painting Taoist Immortals (群仙圖, Gunseondo), and the illustrations of antiques, paintings, and calligraphy reflect those featured in Sandalwood Garden (檀園圖, Danwondo) and Elegant Gathering in the Western Garden (西園雅集圖, Seowonajipdo) (Fig. 8). At first glance, possession of such fine objects may seem to contradict the painting’s theme of unworldliness. However, for those who owned and enjoyed them, such objects may already have become ingrained as intimate everyday goods and thus no longer viewed as luxuries or dilettantish collectibles. There is also a good chance that the painting depicts treasured personal belongings that the artist used and appreciated in his daily life. This conjecture is based on the fact that despite dying in poverty, Gim earned a significant fortune from commissions in his prime years and was able to enjoy luxurious hobbies (Chang Chin-sung 2007, 263). It also takes into account Gim’s identity as a literati painter surrounded by poetry, calligraphy, painting, and music (Hong Sunpyo 2012, 134–135).

Fig. 7. Portrait of a Literatus Seeking Delight in the Arts by Gim Hongdo. Joseon, late 18th century. 27.9 x 37.0 cm. Ink and slight color on paper. Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

Fig. 8. Sandalwood Garden by Gim Hongdo. Joseon, 1784. Ink and slight color on paper. 135.5 x 78.5 cm. Private collection

One specific example of the display of a treasured ceramic collection comes from Yi Yuwon. In addition to serving as the chief state councilor during the reign of King Gojong, Yi visited China in the mid- to late nineteenth century as a document officer of the Dongjisa (冬至使, winter solstice mission to the Qing court) and again on the occasion of King Sunjong (純宗, r. 1907–1910)’s investiture as crown prince. In 1859, at the age of 46, he began preparing for his retirement by building an estate in Gaogok near what is now Hwado-eup, Namyangju, Gyeonggi-do Province. The estate included a library, teahouse, and two pavilions named Sasihyanggwan (四時香館) and Obaekganjeong (五百間亭). Inside Sasihyanggwan were displayed incense burners and various scholar’s accoutrements, paintings, and ceramic wares. This pavilion was a kind of teahouse, and presumably a very important space for Yi as a connoisseur of traditional tea-making. An essay titled “Sasihyanggwan so jeo gogi” (四時香館所貯古器, Ancient wares stacked in Sasilhyanggwan) in volume 34 of the Imha pilgi (林下筆記), collected writings of Yi Yuwon, describes the display of treasured objects in the pavilion as follows:

It is likely that the celadon brush washer was made in either China or Joseon and that the jade-green wares from Goryeo were identified separately because they were antique ceramic vessels passed down from this period. The passage offers a glimpse into a wealthy nineteenth-century Joseon citizen’s prized collection.

Recognition of Ceramics as Valuable Goods

In order to own ceramic wares, it is highly likely that ceramics aficionados and collectors had no alternative but to purchase them. Examples of purchases of ceramics are seen in the course of the production and supply of official court wares manufactured at the Bunwon official kilns in the first half of the eighteenth century, as recorded by Yi Hagon: “There are approximately 30 different kinds of vessels for royal offerings and 400 horse loads to be offered as bribes to the Saongwon (司饔院, Office of Royal Cuisine). Do not bother to argue about the clarity, smoothness, color, or shape of the vessels. The only sin is to not possess money.” (Dutacho, fasc. 3) This signifies that it was possible to obtain ceramics in diverse shapes and colors if sufficient funds were available. For those who desired premium-quality royal ceramics, the ceramic products from the Bunwon must have been objects of taste and appreciation, regardless of whether they were used or resold after being offered as bribes. This can be surmised because blue-and-white vessels as well as ceramics in the form of scholar’s accoutrements, such as the toad-shaped water dropper mentioned earlier, were highly esteemed at the time and therefore would have been subject to profit-making undertakings (Fig. 9). In sum, the various white porcelains that were produced at the official kilns were also sold to the general public, and Saongwon officials acted as intermediaries in the circulation and profit-making transactions of official wares.

Fig. 9. White Porcelain Turtle-shaped Water Dropper. Joseon, 18th–19th century. Height: 8.2 cm. Ehwa Womans University Museum

In another record by Yi Yuwon, we learn that antique celadon wares were traded in the market. The record testifies that the Japanese paid significant sums of money to purchase celadon tableware decorated with crane and cloud designs that had been unearthed from Goryeo tombs in Kaesong, which were already being looted by the nineteenth century (Jang Namwon 2009a, 202). Yi Yuwon is believed to have had extensive knowledge of the valuable nature of ceramics since he himself had furnished his hyanggak and teahouse with displays of ceramic wares. His being a collector and knowledgeable on market prices lead to the conclusion that his co and their environs, including burning incense, drinking tea, writing poetry, and appreciating calligraphy and music in the house, garden, library, hyanggak, or tea room. Along with the increasing enjoyment of and longing for a simple, unworldly life concentrating on the collection and appreciation of antique scholar’s accoutrements, books, potted plants, and scholar’s rocks, there was a growing appetite for intellectual pleasures and idealistic liberation from worldly existence, which testifies to the likely importance of flowerpots as a treasured type of ceramics (Fig. 11).

Fig. 10. Resting after Reading Books (讀書餘暇) by Jeong Seon (鄭敾, 1676–1759). Joseon, 18th century. Slight color on silk. 24.1 x 17.1 cm. Kansong Art Museum (Gyeonggi Provincial Museum 2012, Fig. 1)

Fig. 11. White Porcelain Flowerpot. Joseon, 19th century. Height: 11.0 cm, Diameter: 15.0 cm (mouth). Ehwa Womans University Museum

Displacement of Ceramics into Images

In literati-style ink paintings, such as those by Gim Hongdo and Gang Sehwang (姜世晃, 1713–1791), scholar’s accoutrements appear as symbols of pure enjoyment. However, in decorative paintings, such as chaekgado or gimyeongdo, these objects were depicted in a variety of colors and often in exaggerated forms to maximize their significance (Fig. 12). That is, in the late Joseon period, when the trend of appreciation for treasured objects permeated society, ceramics diversified from tableware to stationery, ornaments, reproductions of ancient bronzeware, and flowerpots, and painters practicing different styles portrayed these objects in accordance with the purposes of the paintings and the preferences of their patrons.

Fig. 12. Painting of Books and Scholar’s Accoutrements (淸供圖) by Gang Sehwang. Joseon, 18th century. Slight color on silk. 39.5 x 23.3 cm. Sun Moon University Museum

Chaekgado and munbangdo (冊架文房圖, paintings of books and scholar’s accoutrements) are among the most representative paintings that illustrate collections of different kinds of treasured objects (Kang Kwanshik 2001, 496–510; Chung Byeongmo 2012, 172–173). There are also folk-style gimyeongdo paintings that feature various ceramic vessels. It is interesting to note that most ceramics depicted in ornamental folding screen paintings of the late Joseon period are of Chinese origin, such as Song celadon, imitations of the Ge ware, or famille-rose porcelain of the Qing period. The objects depicted in these paintings differ from the ceramics that were popular in the imperial household of the Qing dynasty (Fig. 13). Therefore, it is believed that the painters were referring to examples that were introduced to the Joseon royal court or were referencing paintings that were popular in China at the time (Bang Byungsun 2007, 211; Kim Eunkyoung 2012, 188–189).

Fig. 13. Painting of Books and Scholar’s Accoutrements. Attributed to Giuseppe Castiglione. Qing, 18th century. Color on paper. 237.6 x 123.4 cm. Hopes and Aspirations Collection (Kim Kumja Paik 1998, p. 25)

Being knowledgeable, discerning, and appreciative of ancient things became de rigueur during the Song dynasty as an appreciation for ancient bronzeware swept the country. At the heart of Song culture were scholar-officials who emerged as a new ruling class through the civil service examination. As both civil officials and men of letters and culture, it was essential for them to demonstrate an interest in and knowledge of antiquities as well as poetry and calligraphy. After the Song and throughout the Yuan and Ming dynasties, interest in treasured objects among scholar-bureaucrats and the wealthy expanded from bronzewares to ceramics, rarities, and oddly formed rocks and stones. During the Ming dynasty, their interests also turned to selecting vases for flower arrangements. Books on flower arrangement from this period indicate that vases were chosen by season and placement, such as copperware for spring and winter, ceramics for summer and fall, sizable vases for large households, and small wares for studies (Fig. 14). The situation would have been similar in Joseon in the eighteenth century, when a fever for collecting painting, calligraphy, and antiquities established itself as part of mainstream culture.

Fig. 14. Ge-type Ware Bottle. Qing, Yongzheng era (1723–1735). Baur Collection, Geneva

In the late eighteenth century, King Jeongjo ordered a chaekgado painting to be installed behind the king’s chair in an effort to reverse a perceived decline in learning and to promote a studious ambiance. However, an entry from 1789 in the Hongje jeonseo (弘齎全書, Collected writings of King Jeongjo) notes, “In recent days, the ruling class strays from Joseon’s rules and formalities in trying to emulate strange customs from faraway China. . . . For example, they arrange odd items such as screens for inkstones (墨屛, mukbyeong), brush racks, chairs, stands, three-legged bronze caldrons, wine cups, and wine jars alongside them while drinking tea and burning incense. Their affected elegance and attempts to rise above the world are beyond description.” This text from the chapter “Huneo” (訓語, Admonishment) in the collection of King Jeongjo’s essays, Ildeungnok (日得錄), compiled in vol. 175 of the Hongje jeonseo, demonstrates that the trend of owning and arranging precious objects spread to scholars’ studies and the general public (Fig. 15). Starting in the second half of the eighteenth century, gimyeongdo paintings were produced in large numbers. The paintings portray the objects as more than focal points of hobbies such as the collecting of ancient bronzeware and the appreciation of books and stationary. This suggests that the painters were attempting to recreate an idealized space that was imbued with reality. In other words, with the passage of time, new elements like Joseon inksticks and ceramics were introduced to these paintings, adding reality to the composition (Fig. 16).

Fig. 15. Folding Screen with Image of a Bookcase and Scholar’s Accoutrements (冊架文房圖) by Jang Hanjong (張漢宗, 1768–1815). Joseon, 19th century. Color on paper. 361.0 x 195.0 cm. Gyeonggi Provincial Museum

Fig. 16. Folding Screen with Image of Tiger-skin Curtains by unknown artist (detail). Joseon, 19th century. Color on paper. 355.0 x 128.0 cm. Leeum, Samsung Museum of Art

By simply owning a painting or folding screen, the owner was able to possess many books and treasured ceramics, albeit figuratively. Whether at the court or in a private household, the owner would have been able to create an idealized space anywhere and at any time, simply by placing such a painting in his home. At the 40th celebration of the ascension of King Gojong in 1902, a folding screen with paintings of scholar’s accoutrements was installed behind the crown prince’s seat, showing that folding screens with these images were even used at royal banquets. It is interesting to note that treasured ceramic scholar’s accoutrements and counterfeit bronzeware were depicted even in Buddhist paintings of the late Joseon dynasty, showing the widespread practice of this cultural phenomenon (Figs. 17–1 and 17–2).

Fig. 17-1. Ten Underworld Kings. Joseon, 1828. Color on cotton. 145.2 x 106.3 cm. Mok-a Museum (Seokdang Museum of Dong-A University 2013, Fig. 15)

Fig. 17-2. Blue-and-White Porcelain Peach-shaped Water Dropper. Joseon, 19th century. Height: 10.0 cm. Ehwa Womans University Museum

Conclusion

This paper examined ceramics of the Joseon period in terms of their characteristics, distribution, status as treasured objects, sales, collection, appreciation, and transition into imagery. People create material culture, but they in turn can become bound to a new frame by the very objects they create. For example, to a bibliophile a book is not only a means to cultivate knowledge and character, but also a beautiful and beloved object composed of paper and string with letters and illustrations. The material culture perspective views the possession of a book as separate from the possession of the knowledge, information, or tools for moral cultivation contained within. The author or nature of the book may not even matter.

The production and aesthetics of ceramics during the Joseon period was centered on the official court kilns. The items produced there adhered to an existing system of rites and were made to complement the authority of the royal court. In order to produce ceramics that served such functions, all possible financial and technical efforts were expended. Over time, however, these ceramics came to be used in more diverse ways, being not only functional tableware, but also scholar’s accoutrements, ornaments, and subjects of appreciation.

The trend clearly manifested itself during the late Joseon period. The boundaries that determined the status of certain items, their original purpose, and the classes of people who used them all broke down. As ordinary people developed secular tastes and became more possessive about objects, they came to desire ceramics from the official court kilns, which were not previously available to them. Although hobbies, such as the collecting and appreciation of antiquities and scholar’s accoutrements, were claimed to be a component of the pursuit of unworldliness, in actuality they became a new form of worldly desire and ushered in changes in the use, production, and distribution of ceramics.

The increase in popularity and production of ceramic scholar’s accoutrements stemmed from the change in perception of such objects. Apart from paintings and calligraphy, objects and attire were considered luxuries and thus subject to concern, especially among the literati, regarding the moral pitfalls of a fixation on material objects. Only scholar’s accoutrements were permitted as subjects of extravagance and luxury, which explains why such objects, whether ceramics or made from other materials, proliferated so rapidly from the eighteenth century and onward.

Within Korea, it is presumed that the recognition of ceramics as treasured objects and the social phenomenon of collecting, appreciating, acquiring, and appraising ceramics, including Chinese ceramics, emerged in earnest in the eighteenth century. Frequently mentioned types of ceramics included white porcelain scholar’s accoutrements, white porcelain flowerpots, Chinese ceramics, and Goryeo celadon.

To date, studies on Joseon ceramics have focused on the official court kilns or on style and dating. However, extant ceramic collections from the late Joseon period contain items such as scholar’s accoutrements and flowerpots that were used for decoration or enjoyment. The diverse motifs expressed in their ornamentation suggest the possibility that from the time of their production a distinction was made between ceramics intended for use in the court at official rites and ceramics created purely for appreciation. If we consider that there is a high probability that the Bunwon kilns produced high-quality ceramics that from the start were intended to be treasured objects, then it will be necessary to single out such wares from tableware and ceremonial wares used at the royal court and to study them as treasured ceramics, which reflect personal tastes. Through this process, an objective understanding can be gained of the broader historical issues that affected perception of ceramics in the late Joseon period.